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								9/23/08
								Theorists and Instructional 
								Methods



There have been many educational theorists that have contributed to the comprehension of how students learn.  These theories continue to give educators insight on the differences in students learning and growth.  This consequently enables educators to provide the students with an effective education that caters to their needs and abilities.  There are three theorists that I believe have been extremely effective and that have had a great impact on the education of children:  Howard Gardner, Albert Bandura, and Lev Vygotsky.
Howard Gardner's work around multiple intelligences has had a profound impact on thinking and practice in education - especially in the United States (Smith, 2002, 2008). Howard Gardner viewed intelligence as 'the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting' (Gardner & Hatch, 1989).
Howard Gardner initially formulated a list of seven intelligences. His listing was provisional. The first two have been typically valued in schools; the next three are usually associated with the arts; and the final two are what Howard Gardner called 'personal intelligences' (Gardner 1999: 41-43).  There have been an additional 2 intelligences that have been added on to the theory. 
 Gardners nine multiple intelligences are: Visual/Spatial, Verbal/linguistic, Mathematical/Logical, Bodily/Kinesthetic, Musical/Rhythmic, Intrapersonal, Interpersonal, Naturalist, Existential. Seven kinds of intelligence would allow seven ways to teach, rather than one. And powerful constraints that exist in the mind can be mobilized to introduce a particular concept (or whole system of thinking) in a way that children are most likely to learn it and least likely to distort it. Paradoxically, constraints can be suggestive and ultimately freeing. (op. cit.).   The intelligences that coincide with my research topic on integrating music and theater into the classroom to increase attention span is the musical/rhythmic as well as the bodily kinesthetic.  When these intelligences are used as motivation for the student, they learn through patterns, rhythms and music. This includes not only auditory learning, but also the identification of patterns through all the senses.  Students also learn through interaction with one's environment. Using the bodily/kinesthetic intelligence promotes understanding through concrete experience.
The social learning theory of Albert Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others (Kearsley, 2008). Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action (2008).  Bandura believes that students learn by observing each others behavior.  Giving children the opportunity to learn by watching their peers can be extremely effective in allowing them to react off of one another, which can enhance the learning process.
Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an environmental influences. The component processes underlying observational learning are: (1) Attention, including modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement), (2) Retention, including symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal), (3) Motor Reproduction, including physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction, accuracy of feedback, and (4) Motivation, including external, vicarious and self reinforcement (2008).  One of the steps in the modeling process of Banduras theory is attention.  This can coincide with my action research topic because if you are going to learn anything, you have to be paying attention.  Likewise, anything that puts a damper on attention is going to decrease learning, including observational learning.  If, for example, you are sleepy, groggy, drugged, sick, nervous, or hyper, you will learn less well.  Likewise, if you are being distracted by competing stimuli (Boeree, 1998, 2006).  Music and theater integration can increase awareness and energy, which can in turn raise the attention level in students.  
Vygotsky's theory involves society and culture. He believes that behavior must be studied in a social and historical context, giving rise to the term sociohistorical (Peters & Stout, p. 29). Vygostky believed that children do not reproduce what you tell them; instead they must undergo socially mediated cognitive constructions (Peters & Stout, p. 29). Cognitive development occurs when the child is socially involved in the environment. According to Vygostky (1986), as a child grows, words begin to take on meaning and communication begins to develop (p. 31). Psychological tools and signs, semantic mediation, help us to develop concepts. Vygotsky also believed that the Zone of Proximal development allowed a child's instruction to be ahead of her development; what she could do with the help of another before, she can now do on her own (Peters & Stout, p. 32). Language is essential in Vygotsky's theory and students must use the language of science (Gallas, 1995; Lemke, 1993, p. 35). Children should be exposed to a whole language or an integrated approach to learning because science is a foreign language and the social constructivist theory suggests that a child constructs an understanding of language from the whole to it's parts (Peters & Stout, p. 35). Through the use of role-playing and learning different musical techniques and practices, the students language and social skills are enhanced.  
There are many different instructional methods that teachers use to educate their students. Direct and indirect instruction are two main categories that many educators find useful for classifying teaching methods, but it is, as you will see, a bit more complicated than placing all instruction into two categories. Any instructional method a teacher uses has advantages, disadvantages, and requires some preliminary preparation (Kizlik, 2008).  
Direct instruction is one of the most popular teaching instructions used in the classroom.  It requires a carefully, planned out lesson in which great detail of the subject or topic is explained to the student.  The theory is that clear instruction will improve and accelerate learning.  Some other advantages of direct instruction are that they are catered to very specific learning targets.  Students are told reasons why content is important and it helps to clarify the lesson objective (2008).  Direct instruction is great for teaching basic facts and also makes it easy for the teacher to measure student gains.  Some disadvantages of direct instruction are that it can stop teacher creativity where the teacher becomes used to the direct routine and doesnt allow any spontaneity. It also requires well-organized content preparation and good oral communication skills and if you have a teacher who is very disorganized, the instruction will be disorganized and confusing. Some students need to be creative and need the freedom to thing outside the box, there fore direct instruction may not be effective for higher-order thinking skills, depending on the knowledge base and skill of the teacher (2008).  
Another widely used teaching instruction is cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. Each member of a team is responsible not only for learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere of achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group members successfully understand and complete it (Kagen 1994).  Advantages are that cooperative learning helps   f o s t e r   m u t u a l   r e s p o n s i b i l i t y   a n d (   s u p p o r t e d   b y   r e s e a r c h   i t   i s   a n   e f f e c t i v e   t e c h n i q u e   ( 2 0 0 8 ) .     ( S t u d e n t s   a l s o   l e a r n   t o   b e   p a t i e n t ,   l e s s   c r i t i c a l   a n d   m o r e   c o m p a s s i o n a t e .     S o m e   d i s a d v a n t a g e s   a r e   t h a t   s o m e   s t u d e n t s   j u s t   d o n ' t   w o r k   w e l l   t h i s   w a y .   L o n e r s   f i n d   it hard to share answers, aggressive students try to take over and bright students tend to act superior (2008).  

Smith, M, K. (2002, 2008) 'Howard Gardner and multiple intelligences', The 
     Encyclopedia of Informal Education. Retrieved September 22, 2008 from   
      HYPERLINK "http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm" http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm.

Gardner, H., & Hatch, T. (1989). Multiple intelligences go to school: Educational 
Implications of the Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Educational Researcher, 18(8), 49.

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed. Multiple intelligences for the 21st
     Century, New York: Basic Books. 292 + x pages. Useful Review of Gardner's Theory
     and Discussion of Issues and Additions.

Kearsley, G. (2008). Explorations in Learning & Instruction:
     The Theory Into Practice Database.  Retrieved September 22, 2008 from
      HYPERLINK "http://tip.psychology.org/bandura.html" http://tip.psychology.org/bandura.html.

Peters, J. M., & Stout, D. L. (2006).Science in elementary education: Methods, 
    Concepts, andInquiries(10thed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.
   
Boeree, G.C. (1998, 2006).  C. Albert Bandura.  Retrieved September 23, 2008 from 
      HYPERLINK "http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/bandura.html" http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/bandura.html.

Kagan, S. (1994).  Cooperative Learning.  Retrieved September 23, 2008 from 
     http://edtech.kennesaw.edu/intech/cooperativelearning.htm.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        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  "  "  "  "#  #  $  &  q(  񹨝reeWJ                        h  h  ^J
 _H	aJ  h  h  \^J	 _H	aJ h  h  ^J _H	aJ   h  h  \^J _H	aJ  h%o h  6]^J _H	aJ  h%o h  ^J _H	aJ   hd*d h  B*ph    !hd*d h  B*CJ OJ QJ ph    h  h  B*aJ ph    !h  h  B*^J _H	aJ ph h  h  ^J _H	aJ  h%o h  ^J _H	aJ  h%o h  B*ph    h       )  N  ^  _  `  a  s  	  G    S    6    #  r(  s(  (  
)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     
  1$ 7$ 8$ H$ gd     d gd     d 1$ 7$ 8$ H$ `gd     $d 1$ 7$ 8$ H$ a$gd   
  d 1$ 7$ 8$ H$ gd     d `gd         -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     q(  s(  (  (  	)  )  )  J)  K)  L)  u)  v)  x)  $*  %*  r*  t*  +  +  \+  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  +  
,  մ¥xk]¥P      h%o h  ^J _H	aJ$  j   h%o h  Uh%o h  B*aJ ph    h%o h  6B*aJ ph     h%o h  B*H*ph     !h%o h  B*^J _H	aJ ph h%o h  0J >* B* ph    j    h%o h  Uj    h%o h  Uh%o h  6h%o h   h%o h  6B*ph     h%o h  B*ph    h  h  B*ph     
)  x)  y)  )  %*  &*  u*  *  *  *  6+  +  +  +  8,  ,  ,  ,  X-  Y-  -  -  -                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  gd     ,1$ 7$ 8$ H$ ^,gd   
  1$ 7$ 8$ H$ gd   
,  `,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  '-  (-  )-  U-  V-  X-  Y-  -  -  -  -  Ǽsbs                                                                                                  h  h  OJ
 QJ
 ^J
 _H	aJ  h  h  ^J
 _H	aJ  h  h  0J >* B* ph    j  h  h  Uh  h   j    h  h  Uh  h  6B*ph     h  h  B*ph    h  h  6]^J _H	aJ$  h%o h  B*ph    h  h  ]^J _H	aJ h%o h  6]^J _H	aJ$ " :p  / =!"#$%                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 D                                                                y  K      y  KT   h t t p : / / w w w . i n f e d . o r g / t h i n k e r s / g a r d n e r . h t m     D                                                                y  K      '   h t t p : / / t i p . p s y c h o l o g y . o r g / b a n d u r a . h t m l   y  KN   h t t p : / / t i p . p s y c h o l o g y . o r g / b a n d u r a . h t m l   )  D                                                                y  K      -   h t t p : / / w e b s p a c e . s h i p . e d u / c g b o e r / b a n d u r a . h t m l   y  KZ   h t t p : / / w e b s p a c e . s h i p . e d u / c g b o e r / b a n d u r a . h t m l                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   <  @ <           N o r m a l       CJ aJ mH	sH	tH	                  D A@ D          D e f a u l t   P a r a g r a p h   F o n t     R i@ R          T a b l e   N o r m a l      4 
l 4   a      ( k@ (           N o   L i s t          0 U@  0    %o   	 H y p e r l i n k    >*B*@ V@ @    %o    F o l l o w e d H y p e r l i n k    >*B*    &    T      !   z      !   z     !   z      !   z     !   z          z         <  
  W    $  &    ~             Q               )   N   ^   _   `   a   s    G  	  S    6      r!  s!  !  
"  x"  y"  "  %#  &#  u#  #  #  #  6$  $  $  $  8%  %  %  %  X&  Y&  &  &  &      0             p  `      0             p  `      0             p  `      0             p  `      0             p  `ƀ     0             p  `      0             p  `      0                     0                     0             p  `      0               0      0               0      0             p  `      0               0     0             p  `      0                     0                    0             p  `      0                     0             p  `      0             p  `  @   0             p  `      0             p  `      0               `      0             p  `      0                     0             p  `      0               `      0             p  `      0             p  `      0             p  `      0             p  `      0             p  `      0             p  `      0                @   0             p  `      0                     0             p  `      0             p  `      0             p  `      0                     0             p  `      ^   _   s    G  	  S    6      r!  s!  !  
"  x"  y"  "  %#  &#  u#  #  #  #  6$  $  $  $  8%  %  %  %  X&  Y&  &  &  &    0  
               0  
             
    0                      I   o           0      h        _ 7    a        _ 7    a         30  :  	         ?0    E        ] 7    a        ] 7    a        ] 7    a        ] 7    a          0             ]@7    a        ]@7    a        ] 7    a         0             ]@7    a          I   o           I   o           I   o           0     	          0     	            0                  I   o           I   o           I   o                	%          I   o           I   o           I   o           I   o           I   o           I   o           I   o           I   o            q(  
,  -  $   '   )      
)  -  %   (      -  &   "  K"  u"  $  $  $  %  (&  U&  &  XXX    _ H l t 8 3 7 4 2 9 0 7 
"  &     @"  &      s!  x!  %  %  &           s!  !  %  %  &     :  @ s!  s!  `  s!      s!      @ 2(            !  &  0   @  0  &    0  P @      U n k n o w n                                   G                         T i m e s   N e w   R o m a n   5                               S y m b o l   3                         A r i a l   C M                                A r i a l M T   A r i a l   KM                               T i m e s - R o m a n   T i m e s   C   +                      L u c i d a   G r a n d e   kM                                T i m e s N e w R o m a n P S M T   T i m e s   N e w   R o m a n   yM                                T i m e s N e w R o m a n P S - I t a l i c M T   T i m e s   N e w   R o m a n   M M
                                A r i a l - B o l d M T   A r i a l   Q M
                                V e r d a n a - B o l d   V e r d a n a   7                         V e r d a n a      q   h    O&$F     U   <         ?                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   >4    d      $                                                                           @                                                K-        k T h e r e   h a v e   b e e n   m a n y   e d u c a t i o n a l   t h e o r i s t s   t h a t   h a v e   c o n t r i b u t e d   t o   t h e   c o m p r e h e n s i o n   o f   h o w   s t u d e n t s   l e a r n       
 T h e   P u n i s h e r s 
 T h e   P u n i s h e r s                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        
                    Oh +'0                                 0     <     L  	   d     p  
          
                                 '     l   There have been many educational theorists that have contributed to the comprehension of how students learn                 The Punishers                   Normal        The Punishers         11        Microsoft Word 11.5.0   @    >   @    @    7         <              G   0~  PICT~&    d    ,  ,      	      MSWD   
    	 , Times New Roman  
 2     -       .      + (Zw  )   )   )   )   )   )   )       -          Q )K      -  `       )$i       -             )rs    -       )$t       -             )e      -          Q )n       -             ) P    -       ))o       -             )rce      -  `       )=lli      -       \ )*       -       + (w  )   )   )   )   )   )   )        -             )9/23/08      -        )       -       + (w  )   )   )   )   )   )   )        -             )T      -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )o       -             )r      -  `       )i       -             )s     -       )t       -             )s      -          Q )        -             )
a      -          Q )n       -             )d     -       )        -             )
I      -          Q )n       -             )s     -       )t       -             )ruc     -       )@t      -  `       )i     -       )o      -          Q )n       -             )a      -          Q )l       -             )
       -       \ )
       -       + (w  )   )   )   )   )   )   )        -             )Me    -       )Bt      -          Q )h     -       )o       -             )ds     -           ),       -        (@w  +9  *s        -             *sT      -          Q )h       -             )ere     -       )=       -          Q )
h       -             )a      -          Q )v       -             )e     -       )       -          Q )
b       -             )ee     -          Q ),n       -             )       -  `       )
m       -             )'a      -          Q )ny      -             )1 educa    -       )t      -  `       )i     -       )o      -          Q )n       -             )a      -  `       )l       -             )      -       )
t      -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )o       -             )r      -  `       )i       -             )s     -       )t       -             )s      -          Q )      -       )
t      -          Q )h       -             )a     -       )t       -             ) ha      -          Q );v       -             )e     -       )        -             )
c     -       )o      -          Q )n     -       )t       -             )r      -  `       )i      -          Q )b       -             )u     -       )t       -             )ed     -          Q )/      -       )
t     -      \ )o      -          Q )      -       )
t      -          Q )h       -             )e     -      \ )        -             (wc    -       )o      -  `       )m       -             )'pre      -          Q )@h       -             )e      -          Q )n       -             )s      -  `       )i     -       )o      -          Q )n     -       )&o      -  `       )f      -          Q ) h    -       )&o       -             )w      -          Q )$        -             )
s     -       )t       -             )ude      -          Q )Hn     -       )t       -             )s      -          Q )       -  `       )
l       -             )earn.     - @     
 )b        -             ) T     -          Q ),h       -             )ese     -       )? t     -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )or     -  `       ))i       -             )es    -      \ ))        -             )
c     -       )o      -          Q )n     -       )t      -  `       )i      -          Q )n       -             )ue    -       )/ to       -             )4 g     -  `       )&i      -          Q )v       -             )e     -       )        -             )
educa     -       )tto      -             )'rs     -          Q )$       -  `       )
i      -          Q )n       -             )s      -  `       )i       -             )g      -          Q )h     -      \ )t     -       (Ewo     -          Q )n     -       )&t      -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )        -             )
d      -  `       )i      -          Q )f      -  `       )f       -             )ere      -          Q )=n       -             )ces     -       )?       -  `       )
i      -          Q )n     -      \ )        -             )
s     -       )t       -             )ude      -          Q )Hn     -       )t       -             )s      -          Q )       -             )       -  `       )
l       -             )ear      -          Q )=n      -  `       )i      -          Q )n     -       )g       -             )%a      -          Q )n       -             )d     -       )        -             )
gr    -       )*o       -             )w     -       )$t       -             )h.       -          Q )1        -             )
T      -          Q )h      -  `       )i       -             )s     -      \ )        -             )
c     -       )o      -          Q )n       -             )seque      -          Q )qn     -       )t      -  `       )ly     -          Q )'        -             )
e      -          Q )n       -             )a      -          Q )b      -  `       )l       -             )es    -      \ ))        -             )
educa     -       )tto      -             )'rs     -          Q )$      -       (wto       -             )' p )&r     -       )o      -          Q )v      -  `       )i       -             )de    - @     
 )/      -       )t      -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )        -             )
s     -       )t       -             )ude      -          Q )Hn     -       )t       -             )s      -          Q )        -             )
w      -  `       )$i     -       )t      -          Q )h       -             )&a      -          Q )n       -             )      -       )
e      -  `       )ff      -             )"ec    -       ),t      -  `       )i      -          Q )v       -             )e     -       )        -             )
educa     -       )tt      -  `       )i     -       )o      -          Q )n       -             )      -       )t      -          Q )h       -             )a     -       )t       -             ) ca     -       )9t       -             )ers      -          Q ):      -       )
to t     -          Q )Bh       -             )e      -  `       )i     -       )r     -      \ )       -          Q )
n       -             )eeds    -       )X        -             )
a      -          Q )n       -             )d     -       )        -             )
a      -          Q )b      -  `       )ili     -       )*t      -  `       )i       -             )es    -       )).       -             )   (+wT     -          Q )h       -             )ere     -       )=        -             )
are     -       )It      -          Q )h       -             )ree     -       )= t     -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )o       -             )r      -  `       )i       -             )s     -       )t       -             )s      -          Q )      -       )
t      -          Q )h       -             )a     -      \ )t       -             )
 I     -          Q ) b      -             )%e      -  `       )li      -             )e      -          Q )v       -             )e     -       )       -          Q )
h       -             )a      -          Q )v       -             )e     -       )       -          Q )
b       -             )ee     -          Q ),n       -             )      -       )
e      -          Q )x     -       )t       -             )re     -  `       )'m       -             )'e      -  `       )ly      -             )' e     -  `       )#ff      -             )"ec    -       ),t      -  `       )i      -          Q )v       -             )e     -       )        -             )
a      -          Q )n     -       )d t      -          Q )3h       -             )a     -       )t       -             )       -          Q )
h       -             )a      -          Q )v       -             )e     -       )       -          Q )
h       -             )a     -       )d       -             ) a   (wgrea     -       )Vt       -             )       -  `       )
im      -             )5pac     -       )Et       -             )      -       )
o       -             )n      -          Q )      -       )
t      -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )        -             )
educa     -       )tt      -  `       )i     -       )o      -          Q )n     -       )&o      -          Q )f       -             )c      -          Q )h      -  `       )il      -             )dre      -          Q )@n     -       ):         -             )'H     -       )$o       -             )war     -       )Kd       -             ) Gard      -          Q )qn       -             )er    -       )',       -             )       -          Q )
A      -  `       )$l      -          Q )b       -             )er    -      \ )'t       -             )
 Ba      -          Q )Dn       -             )dura )Y,  )a      -          Q )n       -             )d     -      \ )       -          Q )L       -             )e      -          Q )v     -       )        -             (wV     -  `       )$y       -             )g     -       )ot      -             )'sk     -  `       ),y       -             ).      -        )
        -             (
H    -       )$o       -             )ward     -          Q )d        -             )
Gard     -          Q )dn       -             )er     -          Q )''       -             )	s     -       )        -             )
w     -       )$o       -             )rk     -          Q )*      -       )
a       -             )r     -       )o       -             )u      -          Q )n       -             )d     -       )       -  `       )
m       -             )'u      -  `       )l     -      \ )t      -  `       )
i       -             )p      -  `       )l       -             )e     -      \ )       -  `       )
i      -          Q )n     -       )t       -             )e      -  `       )lli       -             )*gences    -      \ )       -          Q )
h       -             )as    -       ))       -          Q )
h       -             )ad    -       )/        -             )
a      -          Q )        -             )
pr    -       )*o      -  `       )f     -       )o       -             )u      -          Q )n       -             )d     -       )       -          Q )
i      -  `       )
m       -             )'pac     -       )Et  (wo     -          Q )n     -       )&t      -          Q )h      -  `       )i      -          Q )n       -             )k      -  `       )i      -          Q )n       -             )g     -       )        -             )
a      -          Q )n     -       )d       -             )%prac    -       )Vt      -  `       )i       -             )ce    -      \ ),       -  `       )
i       -             )n     -      \ )        -             )
educa     -       )tt      -  `       )i     -       )o      -          Q )n     -       )&-       -             ) espec     -  `       ){i       -             )a      -  `       )lly       -             )5       -  `       )
i      -          Q )n     -      \ )      -       )
t      -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )        -             )
U      -          Q )$n      -  `       )i     -       )t       -             )ed S    -       )Wt       -             )a     -       )t       -             )es     -          Q ))        -             )
(  )S      -  `       )mi    -       )5t       -             )h, )% 200    -       )X2       -             ),  (jw2008). H     -       )o       -             )war     -       )Kd       -             ) Gard      -          Q )qn       -             )e     -       )r       -             )       -          Q )
v      -  `       )i       -             )ewed    -      \ )i       -  `       )
i      -          Q )n     -       )t       -             )e      -  `       )lli       -             )*ge     -          Q )/n       -             )ce    -       ),        -             )
as     -          Q )) '    -       )t      -          Q )h     -       )e       -             )"capac      -  `       )qi     -       )t      -  `       )y      -          Q )      -       )
to        -             )4s     -       )o      -  `       )l      -          Q )v       -             )e     -       )        -             )
pr    -       )*o       -             )b      -  `       )l       -             )e      -  `       )m       -             )'s     -      \ )      -       )
o       -             )r      -          Q )      -       )
t     -      \ )o       -             )       -  `       (wf      -             )as     -          Q ))h      -  `       )i     -       )o      -          Q )n       -             )&pr    -       )*o       -             )duc     -       )Ht       -             )s      -          Q )      -       )
t      -          Q )h       -             )a     -       )t       -             ) ar     -       )4e       -             )       -          Q )
v       -             )a      -  `       )l       -             )ued     -      \ )H       -  `       )
i       -             )n     -      \ )      -       )
o      -          Q )n       -             )e     -       ) or       -             )6       -  `       )
m     -       )'o       -             )re     -          Q )'        -             )
cu     -          Q )/l     -       )
t       -             )ura      -  `       )@l       -             ) se     -       )6tt     -  `       )i      -          Q )n       -             )g      -          Q )'       -             )	 (Gard     -          Q )n     -       )e       -             )r      -          Q )        -             )
&     -       )&        -             )
Ha    -       ):t       -             )c      -          Q )h       -             ),     -       )
        -             )
198     -       )K9       -             )).     -       \ )        -             (PwH    -       )$o       -             )ward     -          Q )d        -             )
Gard     -          Q )dn       -             )er    -       )'       -  `       )
i      -          Q )ni    -       )&t      -  `       )i       -             )a      -  `       )lly     -       )5       -  `       )f     -       )o       -             )r      -  `       )m       -             )'u      -  `       )l       -             )a     -       )t       -             )ed     -          Q )/      -       )
a      -  `       )"li      -             )s     -       )t       -             )      -       )
o      -          Q )f       -             )se     -          Q ))v       -             )e      -          Q )n       -             )       -  `       )
i      -          Q )n     -       )t       -             )e      -  `       )lli       -             )*ge     -          Q )/n       -             )ces.    -       )L        -             )
H      -  `       )$i       -             )s     -      \ )       -  `       )
li      -             )s     -       )t      -  `       )i      -          Q )n       -             )g     -       )        -             )
was  (wpr     -       )*o      -          Q )v      -  `       )i       -             )s      -  `       )i     -       )o      -          Q )n       -             )a      -  `       )l       -             ).     - @     
 )
        -             )T      -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )       -  `       )
f      -          Q )i       -             )
rs    -       )$t       -             )      -       )
t       -             )w     -       )$o       -             )       -          Q )
h       -             )a      -          Q )v       -             )e     -       )       -          Q )
b       -             )een     -       )D t     -  `       )y       -             )p      -  `       )i       -             )ca     -  `       ),lly       -             )5       -          Q )
v       -             )a      -  `       )l     -       )u       -             )ed     -          Q )/       -  `       )
i      -          Q )n     -      \ )        -             )
sc     -          Q ))h     -       )oo     -  `       )2l       -             )s      -          Q );       -             )      -       )
t      -          Q )h       -             )e  )       -          Q )
n       -             )e      -          Q )x     -       )t     -      \ )      -       )t      -          Q )h       -             )ree     -       )=        -             )
are      -          Q )=        -             )
usua     -  `       )[ll     -          Q )y     - @     
 )        -             (	6wass    -       )<o       -             )c      -  `       )i       -             )a     -       )t       -             )ed     -          Q )/        -             )
w      -  `       )$i     -       )t      -          Q )h     -       )&t      -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )        -             )
ar    -       )'t       -             )s      -          Q );       -             ) a     -          Q )#n       -             )d     -       ) t     -          Q )h       -             )e     -      \ )       -  `       )fi     -          Q )n       -             )a      -  `       )l       -             )      -       )
t       -             )w     -      \ )$o       -             ) are     -  `       )J        -             )
w      -          Q )$h       -             )a     -      \ )t       -             )
 H    -       )1o       -             )ward     -          Q )d        -             )
Gard     -          Q )dn       -             )e     -       )r       -             ) ca      -  `       )9ll      -             )ed    -      \ )/       -          Q )
'       -             )	pers    -       )So      -          Q )n       -             )a      -  `       )l     -       )       -  `       (	wi     -          Q )n     -       )t       -             )e      -  `       )lli       -             )*ge     -          Q )/n       -             )ces      -          Q )?'       -             )	 (Gard     -          Q )n       -             )er    -       )'        -             )
1999    -       )d:       -             )
 41  )?-  )43    -       )2)       -             ).      -          Q )        -             )
T      -          Q )h       -             )er    -       )'e       -             )       -          Q )
h       -             )a      -          Q )v       -             )e     -      \ )       -          Q )b       -             )ee     -          Q ),n       -             ) a     -          Q )#n       -             ) add     -  `       )Ui     -       )t      -  `       )i     -       )o      -          Q )n       -             )a      -  `       )l       -             )      -       )
2       -             )       -  `       )
i      -          Q )n     -       )t       -             )e      -  `       )lli       -             )*ge     -          Q )/n       -             )ces     -       )? t     -          Q )h       -             )a     -       )t      -          Q (
wh      -             )a      -          Q )v       -             )e     -       )       -          Q )
b       -             )ee     -          Q ),n       -             ) added    -       ) o     -          Q )&n     -       )&t     -      \ )o      -          Q )      -       )
t      -          Q )h       -             )e     -       ) t     -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )o       -             )r      -          Q )y       -             ).     -       )
       -       \ )
      -       (
w       -             )Gard     -          Q )dn       -             )er     -          Q )'       -             )s   .   -  -       )       -          Q )<n      -  `       )i      -          Q )n       -             )e   .   -  -       )       -  `       )<m       -             )'u      -  `       )l     -       )t      -  `       )i       -             )p      -  `       )l       -             )e   -   -  ,     f )       -  `       )<i      -          Q )n     -       )t       -             )e      -  `       )lli       -             )*ge     -          Q )/nc      -             )0e      -          Q )s   /   -  .@     
 )        -             )<ar     -          Q )'e       -             ):   .   -  -       )        -             )<V      -  `       )$i       -             )sua      -  `       )Bl       -             )/Spa    -       )Yt      -  `       )i       -             )a      -  `       )l       -             ),   -   -  ,     f )
        -             )<Ver      -          Q )Kb       -             )a      -  `       )l       -             )/      -  `       )li     -          Q )n       -             )gu     -  `       )2i       -             )s     -       )t      -  `       )i       -             )c,    -      \ )#        -             (wMa     -       )Bt      -          Q )h       -             )e      -  `       )m       -             )'a     -       )t      -  `       )i       -             )ca     -  `       ),l       -             )/      -          Q )L     -       )o       -             )g      -  `       )i       -             )ca     -  `       ),l       -             ),   S   -  R      )
        -             )bB     -       )!o       -             )d      -  `       )ily       -             )5/      -          Q )K      -  `       )$i      -          Q )n       -             )es    -       ))t      -          Q )h       -             )e     -       )t      -  `       )i       -             )c,  S   -  R      )#        -             )bMus      -  `       )Xi       -             )ca     -  `       ),l      -          Q )/       -             )R      -          Q )!h      -  `       )y     -       )t      -          Q )h      -  `       )mi      -             )5c,  S   -  R      )#        -             )bI      -          Q )n     -       )t       -             )rapers    -       )zo      -          Q )n       -             )a      -  `       )l       -             ),     - @     
 )
        -             (uwI     -          Q )n     -       )t       -             )erpers    -       )zo      -          Q )n       -             )a      -  `       )l       -             ),     -      \ )
        -             )
Na    -       ):t       -             )ura      -  `       )@li      -             )s     -       )t       -             ), E      -          Q )8x      -  `       )i       -             )s     -       )t       -             )e      -          Q )n     -       )t      -  `       )i       -             )a      -  `       )l       -             ).     -      \ )
        -             )
Se     -          Q )2v       -             )e      -          Q )n       -             ) k     -  `       )&i      -          Q )n       -             )ds    -      \ ),      -       )o      -  `       )f      -          Q )       -  `       )
i      -          Q )n     -       )t       -             )e      -  `       )lli       -             )*ge     -          Q )/n       -             )ce    -       ),        -             )
w     -       )$o       -             )u      -  `       )l       -             )d     -      \ )        -             )
a      -  `       )ll    -       )o       -             )w      -          Q )$        -             )
se     -          Q ))v       -             )e      -          Q )n       -             ) wa      -         )Gy      -          Q )s     -      \ )    
 !   !	 !  	 !          !	 ! 	 !        !	 ! 	 !        !	 ! 	 !        !	 ! 	 !        !	 ! 	 !        !	 ! 	 !        !	 ! 	 !        !	 ! 	 !                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           
                    ՜. +,D   ՜. +,  @        `      h      p      x                                 
               '     ?            $                                        l   There have been many educational theorists that have contributed to the comprehension of how students learn            Title                         8      @            _PID_HLINKS    '  A                                   -   h t t p : / / w e b s p a c e . s h i p . e d u / c g b o e r / b a n d u r a . h t m l                  w 2                       '   h t t p : / / t i p . p s y c h o l o g y . o r g / b a n d u r a . h t m l                  Y 4                        *   h t t p : / / w w w . i n f e d . o r g / t h i n k e r s / g a r d n e r . h t m                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         	   
         
                                                             !   "   #   $   %   &   '   (   )   *   ,   -   .   /   0   1   2   4   5   6   7   8   9   :   ;   <   =   ?   @   A   B   C   D   E   F   G   H   I   J   K   L   M   N   O   P   Q   R   S   T   U   V   W   X   Y   Z   [   \   ]   ^   _   `   a   b   c   d   e   f   g   h   i   j   k   l   m   n   o   p   q   r   s   t   u   v   w   x   y   z   {   |   }   ~                           R o o t   E n t r y                                                 	           F                      D a t a                                                         
                                     +          1 T a b l e                                                                                                3         W o r d D o c u m e n t                                                                                        $T       S u m m a r y I n f o r m a t i o n                           (                                     >   <       D o c u m e n t S u m m a r y I n f o r m a t i o n           8                                                   C o m p O b j                                                                                           X                                                                                                                                 	           F   Microsoft Word Document NB6W   Word.Document.8                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             